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High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The rate coding model of neuronal firing communication states that as the intensity of a stimulus increases the frequency or rate of action potentials, or "spike firing", increases. Rate coding is sometimes called frequency coding. This phenomenon was originally shown by ED Adrian and Y Zotterman in 1926.In this simple experiment different weights were hung from a muscle. As the weight of the stimulus increased, the number of spikes recorded from sensory nerves innervating the muscle also increased. From these original experiments Adrian and Zotterman concluded that action potentials were unitary events, and that the frequency of events, and not individual event magnitude, was the basis for most inter-neuronal communication.

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The Ruffed Grouse, Bonasa umbellus, is a medium-sized grouse occurring in forests from the Appalachian Mountains across Canada to Alaska. It is non-migratory. The Ruffed Grouse is frequently referred to as the "partridge". This is technically wrong - partridges are unrelated phasianids, and in hunting may lead to confusion with the Grey Partridge. That species was introduced to North America from Europe; it is a bird of woodlands, not open areas. The Ruffed Grouse is also sometimes called a "grinch" in parts of rural Kentucky and Ohio, likely due to its spectral quality in the woods.

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Shigella is a genus of Gram-negative, non-spore forming rod-shaped bacteria closely related to Escherichia coli and Salmonella. The causative agent of human shigellosis, Shigella cause disease in primates, but not in other mammals. It is only naturally found in humans and apes. During infection, it typically causes dysentery. Group A?C are physiologically similar; S. sonnei (group D) can be differentiated on the basis of biochemical metabolism assays. Three Shigella groups are the major disease-causing species: S. flexneri is the most frequently isolated species worldwide and accounts for 60% of cases in the developing world; S. sonnei causes 77% of cases in the developed world, compared to only 15% of cases in the developing world; and S. dysenteriae is usually the cause of epidemics of dysentery, particularly in confined populations such as refugee camps.

Understanding of the ecology of fungal entomopathogens has vastly increased since the early 1800a??s, but remains challenging. The often complex interactions between pathogen and host are being unravelled through eloquent research and the importance of the often subtle interactions, in determining the success or failure of biological control, cannot be underplayed. The realm of ecology is vast and deciphering insect-fungal pathogen interactions within an ecological context will take us on voyages beyond our imagination. This book brings together the work of renowned scientists to provide a synthesis of recent research on the ecology of fungal entomopathogens exploring host-pathogen dynamics from the context of biological control and beyond. Dr. Helen Roy leads zoological research in the Biological Records Centre at the NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, UK. The focus of her research is insect community interactions with particular emphasis on the effects of environmental change....

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! "Resurrection ecology" is an evolutionary biology technique whereby researchers hatch dormant eggs from lake sediments to study animals as they existed decades ago. It is a new approach that might allow scientists to observe evolution as it occurred, by comparing the animal forms hatched from older eggs with their extant descendants. One such researcher in the field is W. Charles Kerfoot of Michigan Technological University whose results were published in the journal Limnology and Oceanography. He reported on success in a search for "resting eggs" of zooplankton that are dormant in Portage Lake on Michigan's Upper Peninsula. The lake has undergone a considerable amount of change over the last 100 years including flooding by copper mine debris, dredging, and eutrophication.

Providing a comprehensive insight into cellular signaling processes in bacteria, this is the first book to cover intercellular, transmembrane, as well as intra-cellular signaling and its relevance for biofilm formation, differentiation, host pathogen interactions, symbiotic relationships, chemotaxis and various stress responses. In addition, the book deals in detail with principal bacterial signaling mechanisms a?? making this a valuable resource for all advanced students in microbiology. Reinhard KrA¤mer is an expert in intracellular signaling and its implications for biotechnology processes, while Kirsten Jung is an expert in intercellular communication and transmembrane signaling.

Peter M. Kappeler

Book DescriptionCooperative behavior has been one of the enigmas of evolutionary theory since the days of Charles Darwin. The contributions to this book examine the many facets of cooperative behavior in primates and humans as some of the world’s leading experts review and summarize the state of the art of theoretical and empirical studies of cooperation. This book is thus the first to bridge the gap between parallel research in primatology and studies of humans. Comparative as this approach is, ithighlights both common principles and aspects of human uniqueness with respect to cooperative behavior.

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The Rufous Bush Robin (Cercotrichas galactotes), also called the Rufous-tailed Scrub Robin or Rufous Bush Chat, is a small member of the flycatchers. It breeds around the Mediterranean and east to Pakistan. It also breeds south of the Sahara from the Sahel region east to Somalia; these birds are sometimes considered to be a separate species, African Scrub Robin (C. minor). It is partially migratory, wintering in east Africa and India. This is a very rare visitor to northern Europe. This is a bird of dry open country with bushes and shrubs. It builds its nest in a bush; three to five eggs is a typical clutch. The Rufous Bush Robin is larger than the European Robin. It has brown upper parts, whitish under parts, and a prominent whitish eye-stripe. The western race has a paler, warmer brown back than birds in southeast Europe and Asia.

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In biochemistry and molecular biology, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid. For example, one might say, "The histidine residue is considered to be basic due to its imidazole ring." Note that a residue is different from a moiety, which, in the above example would be constituted by the imidazole ring or "the imidazole moiety". Note the origin of this usage: during the process by which monomeric building blocks (e.g. amino acids) are strung together into a polymeric chain (e.g. a protein), some material (typically adding up to one molecule of water) is discarded from each building block, and only a "residue" of the building block ends up in the finished product. For example, a residue is an individual amino acid in a peptide chain.

The giant clam, Tridacna gigas, or traditionally, pa?ua, is the largest living bivalve mollusk. Tridacna gigas is one of the most endangered species amongst the clams. It was mentioned as early as 1825 in scientific reports.Giant Clam One of a number of large clam species native to the shallow coral reefs of the South Pacific and Indian oceans, they can weigh more than 200 kilograms (440 pounds), measure as much as 1.2 metres (4 feet) across, and have an average lifespan in the wild of 100 years or more. They are also found off the shores of the Philippines, where they are called taklobo. T. gigas lives in flat coral sand or broken coral and can be found at depth of as much as 20 meters. Its range covers the entire Indo-Pacific, but populations are diminishing quickly and the giant clam has become extinct in many areas where it was once common. T. maxima has the largest geographical distribution of the giant clam species; it can be found in high- or low-islands, lagoons, or fringing...